Knowledge under the microscope: the legitimacy of scientific knowledge
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30973/esdi.2026.12.1.254Keywords:
scientific peer review, fake science, academic publication, academic retraction, COVID-19 vaccinesAbstract
This research focuses attention on issues of scientific knowledge legitimacy. The academic retraction declarations of articles on the subject of COVID-19 vaccines were analyzed and the number of citations of those articles was recorded. A total of 52 articles were analyzed that were published between 2020 and 2025 with a retraction time of 0 to 4 years and citation range from 0 to 435. Ethical violations related to scientific misconduct were the reason for retraction. The delay in retraction time causes the article’s use and citation. This research highlights shortcomings in the system for evaluating and validating information related to academic publication.
Downloads
References
Avenell, Alison, et al. "An investigation into the impact and implications of published papers from retracted research: systematic search of affected literature." BMJ open 9.10, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031909
Beall, Jeffrey. "Predatory publishers are corrupting open access." Nature 489.7415, 2012, pp. 179-179. https://doi.org/10.1038/489179a
Benos, Dale J., et al. "Ethics and scientific publication." Advances in physiology education, 2005, pp. 59-74. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00056.2004
Boudreau, Marie-Claude, David Gefen, and Detmar W. Straub. "Validation in Information Systems research: A state-of-the-art assessment1." MIS quarterly, vol. 25.1, 2001, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.2307/3250956
Cobey, Kelly D., et al. "What is a predatory journal? A scoping review." F1000Research, vol. 7, 2018, 1001. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.15256.2
Dialnet. Dialnet's database, 2026, https://dialnet.unirioja.es/
DORA. Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA), 2020, https://sfdora.org/reports/
Elmore, Susan A., and Eleanor H. Weston. "Predatory journals: what they are and how to avoid them." Toxicologic pathology, vol. 48.4, 2020, pp. 607-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/01926233209202
Elsevier. Elsevier’s database, 2020, https://www.elsevier.com/es-es
Fan, Wenfei, et al. "Catching numeric inconsistencies in graphs." Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Management of Data, 2018, pp. 381-393. https://doi.org/10.1145/3183713.3183753
Frederickson, Robert M., and Roland W. Herzog. "Addressing the big business of fake science." Molecular Therapy, vol. 30.7, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymthe.2022.06.001
Google scholar. Google Scholar's database, 2026, https://scholar.google.com/
Hamed, Ahmed Abdeen, and Xindong Wu. "Detection of ChatGPT fake science with the xFakeSci learning algorithm." Scientific reports, vol. 14.1, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66784-6
Hopf, Henning, et al. "Fake science and the knowledge crisis: ignorance can be fatal." Royal Society open science, vol. 6.5, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190161
Hviid, Anders, et al. "Measles, mumps, rubella vaccination and autism: a nationwide cohort study." Annals of internal medicine, vol. 170.8, 2019, pp. 513-520. https://doi.org/10.7326/ M18-2101
Informe Global STM. STM Online Services Report 2024-2028: US and China Dominate R&B Spending, 2024, https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2024/08/26/2935595/0/en/STM-Online-Services-Global-Report-2024-2028-US-and-China-Dominate-R-D-Spending.html
Kestenbaum, Lori A., and Kristen A. Feemster. "Identifying and addressing vaccine hesitancy." Pediatric annals, vol. 44.4, 2015, pp. e71-e75. https://doi.org/10.3928/00904481- 20150410-07
Around, Emotions, and Vaccines Are. "The biggest pandemic risk? Viral misinformation.", 2018, https://doi.org/10. 1038/d41586-018-07034-4
Leong, Wei Yee. "Measles cases hit record high in Europe in 2018." Journal of Travel Medicine, vol. 25.1, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/
PubMed. COVID-19. Centro Nacional de Información Biotecnológica (NCBI), 2026, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Rao, TS Sathyanarayana, and Chittaranjan Andrade. "The MMR vaccine and autism: Sensation, refutation, retraction, and fraud." Indian journal of psychiatry, vol. 53.2, 2011, pp. 95-96, https://doi.org/10. 4103/0019-5545.82529
Retraction Watch Retracted coronavirus (COVID-19) papers. 2026, https://retractionwatch.com/retracted-coronavirus-covid-19-papers/
Roberts, Paula, and Helena Priest. "Reliability and validity in research." Nursing standard, vol. 20.44, 2006, pp. 41-46, https://doi.org/10.7748/ns2006.07.20.44.41.c6560
Scopus. Scopus’ database, 2026, https://www.scopus.com/home.uri
Yeo-Teh, Nicole Shu Ling, and Bor Luen Tang. "An alarming retraction rate for scientific publications on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)." Accountability in research, vol. 28.1, 2021, pp. 47-53. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989621.2020.1782203
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 DISCOURSE STUDIES
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Since 2023, the journal has been published in open access under the CC BY-NC 4.0 Attribution/NonCommercial 4.0 International license, which allows you to share: copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format; and adapt: remix, transform, and build upon the material. Attribution: you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in a reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests that the licensor endorses you or your use. NonCommercial: you may not use the material for commercial purposes.
